Summaries of Outsourcing Works

Summary # 1 : 2 In their article Outscouring Types, Relative Wages, and the Demand for Skilled Workers: New Evidence from the U. S. Manufacturing Aekapol Chongvilaivan, Jung Hur and Yohanes E. Ryianto analyse the impacts of outsourcing on relative wages of firm workers. The concept of outsourcing implies that firms contract out some level of production in the vertical chain of production. The authors claims that there is a relationship between outsourcing types and relative wages of skilled and unskilled workers.In fact, the researchers thesis claim that downstream materials and service outsourcing are influenced by worker skill, while upstream materials outsourcing is not. First, the authors divide the concept of outsourcing in three categories. The first type consist of upstream material outsourcing. A firm doing so will outsource the production of inputs for a good. The second type consists of downstream production in which firms outsource the production of the final product. The third type consists of service outsourcing sectors such as communications, accounting, auditing , bookkeeping and computer services.The authors explain that each type require different levels of skills for labour. Therefore, they do not have the same impact on demand for skilled labour. Before conducting their study, the authors reviewed previous literature on the topic. An influential study to the authors research is one written by Blum in 2007. This reviewed literature showed that shifts of structures in the economy industries could explain the rising wages for skilled workers. Another influential literature studied by the researchers is one study conducted by Amiti and Weu (2006).This study evaluated the impacts of contracting out on the productivity in the United-States. Amiti and Weu (2006) explain that if firms are able to internationally fragment the inefficient parts of their production process by outsourcing, they can then specialise in the part of the production process in which they have comparative advantage locally. The study conducted by Manufacturing Aekapol Chongvilaivan, Jung Hur and Yohanes E. Ryianto differs from previous ones because of their distinction between skilled and unskilled worker.Another distinguishing aspect of the research is the division of upstream and downstream outsourcing as different categories . Instead of using a panel data analysis researchers used a cross industry analysis. In order to conduct their research on impact of outsourcing on relative wages, the authors have retrieved their information from various data sources. The first one is the 2002 Annual survey of Manufactures(ASM). This source offered authors information on â€Å"wages and employment of the skilled and unskilled workers across the manufacturing sector†.Researchers also used the 2002 economic census as a data source where they got the â€Å"cost and production structure of manufacturing firms and also their use of capital and services†. To measure the employment share of skilled workers the authors used a short run cost function based on the Brown and Christensen(1981 model). To measure downstream and upstream outsourcing impacts on relative wages, researchers scattered skill wage share with different logarithm of elements of production.As for results, authors found that if import share is not significant on wage gap between skilled and unskilled workers. Researchers found a negative relationship between capitals and the relative demand for skilled workers. The authors also present that larger industries have higher wage share of skilled workers. This can be due to their cost advantage as a firm. Researchers also found that material outsourcing show the way to a decline in the overall productivity of labour in the short-run. Consequently, the efficiency of has a positive impact on relative wages.The authors show that downstream materials and service outsourcing have a positive impact on the wages of skilled workers relative to those of unskilled workers. Researchers also showed that upstream material outsourcing has a negative impact on relative wages of workers. The authors conclude by claiming that technology is influenced by skill in the manufacturing sector. Summary # 2 : Hartmut Egger and Peter Egger are authors of International outsourcing and the productivity of low-skilled labor in the EU.Their article shows the relationships between outsourcing and the productivity of low skilled labor. For their work, the authors claim that in the short run outsourcing has a minor negative effect on contributions of workers. They estimate that in the long run however, that outsourcing has a positive impact on real value added per worker. The researchers relied on previous studies conducted by Feenstra and Hanson to structure their study. Feenstra and Hanson’s article studied the effects of offshoring and outsourcing on the labor market in the U.S. Other influential studies used by authors stu died the trade relationship of the E. U with developing countries. For their study, the researchers used various source of data to analyze the relationship of outsourcing and worker productivity. First, authors referred to the sources New Cronos (Eurostats) and Stan (OECD) to obtain numbers on productivity per worker, real gross production, employment and education in the European Union. Also, to measure the concept of outsourcing researchers used EU-output input tables.Finally, the authors used data from the UN data on intermediate goods trade. The data sets chosen by researchers were computed using translog functions and CES functions. CES refers to constant elasticity of substitution; a function that include complex production or utility functions. Such functions offer simulation of the outsourcing effect on the average productivity of labor. The calculations where based on three main characteristic assumptions. The first being that outsourcing moves part of the production to oth er countries economies and markets.Secondly, by maximizing their surplus firms want to adjust their factor employment. Thirdly, the difference between the short-run and the long run effects of contracting out may be increased due to flaws in markets. More firms may have the incentive to respond to competing companies outsourcing. After analyzing data with functions researchers made the following findings: The first relates to outsourcing seems to make use of a significant negative effect on low skill worker productivity. Their research showed that.Also, researchers demonstrated that in the long run outsourcing had a positive effect on the productivity of low skilled labor. The difference between the short-run and the long-run effects of international outsourcing may be magnified by product market imperfections. The authors conclude their work by claiming that low-skilled labor productivity growth in the European industries in the short run was mainly stimulated by the change in phys ical capital stocks and skill upgrading rather than fragmentation of production across borders.

Audio Lingual Method

1 GGGV 2044 METHODS IN TEACHING ENGLISH AS A SECOND LANGUAGE Semester 2 2009/2010 AUDIO-LINGUAL METHOD: A DISCUSSION (INDIVIDUAL ASSIGNMENT) LECTURER: DR. HAMIDAH BT. YAMAT @ AHMAD LISA KWAN SU LI A123040 TESL/2 2 1. 1 INTRODUCTION The Audio-lingual Method (ALM), by its very name – â€Å"audio† and â€Å"lingual† – refers to a language teaching approach that focuses on two aspects of language, namely listening and speaking.Unlike its predecessor, the Grammar Translation Method, which focuses on reading and writing skills, this approach chooses to emphasize on the first two stages in the natural order of language learning (listening, speaking, reading followed by writing) with the belief that learners who are better speakers and listeners consequently make better readers and writers. The ALM has a firm foundation in the theories of both structural linguistics and behavioural psychology, and thus incorporates techniques and strategies that advocate the conce pts and assumptions of language learning from both schools of thought.The structural linguistics view of language learning says that language is learned through awareness and specific attention to the patterns and structure of the language. One of the ALM’s main characteristics is its use of repetition and drills that draw learners’ attention to the patterns of the target language which are subsequently memorized and repeated to automaticity. Language learning from the view of behavioural psychology on the other hand, occurs by conditioning and habit formation of accurate responses to stimuli. The right response for a stimulus is modelled by the teacher beforehand and then drilled into the learners repeatedly until such responses become a â€Å"habit† that enables learners to successfully produce accurate responses without clues or prompting by the teacher. This discussion aims to further understand the Audio-lingual Method and explore the advantages and disadva ntages of employing it in the second language classroom. The author also puts out her recommendations for the use of the ALM in the second language classroom. 2. 1 HISTORY By the first half of the twentieth century, the Direct Method had lost its popularity in the U. S.However, it is believed that the decline of the Direct Method brought about the emergence of the ALM. As Brown (2001) puts it: â€Å"†¦ by the middle of the twentieth century, the Direct Method was revived and redirected into what was probably the most visible of all language teaching â€Å"revolutions† in the modern era, the Audio-lingual Method. † The U. S. educational institutions at the time still believed that a reading approach like the Grammar Translation Method was more practical than an oral one. Therefore the 1930s and 1940s saw the Grammar Translation Method going strong in all schools across the U.S. However, after World War II, the U. S. saw an urgent need for her to be orally proficien t in the language of her allies as well as foes. This led to a drastic change in 4 the current view of language teaching from a mere reading approach to one with a heavier emphasis on aural and oral skills. Special intensive language programs were developed by the U. S. army which came to be known as the Army Specialized Training Program (ASTP), or more simply, the Army Method. In the 1950s, the Army Method was renamed the Audiolingual Method. 3. 1 PRINCIPLES OF ALMSome of the main principles of language learning in the ALM are stated by Alkhuli 2005 (as cited by Abdel-Rahman Abu-Melhim in the International Forum of Teaching and Studies). One of these principles is that the second language learning process should be similar to that of first language acquisition. This complies with the natural order of language learning which is listening, speaking, reading and finally, writing. It is believed that the learner first learns to speak what he has listened to, then read what he has spoke n, and write what he has read.Therefore, the ALM emphasizes on listening and speaking skills in order to facilitate the progress of reading and writing skills besides increasing communicative competency. Another principle is that the second language is best acquired by habit formation. A habit is created when an action is repeated and is subsequently produced 5 in response to certain stimuli almost without conscious activity. This is achieved via the repetitive pattern practices that are part and parcel of the ALM. Translation of the target language into the native language is considered harmful and will hinder acquisition of the second language.Such translations are believed to impede the mastery or control of the second language. When the target language is used in all circumstances in the classroom, learners learn to make direct connections between the vocabulary and its semantics in the target language itself, which is ideal for effective second language learning. However, these principles are merely assumptions. Counter-arguments include: second language learning is completely different from native language acquisition in many different aspects.In addition, the natural order of language learning that the ALM stresses on is irrelevant because the four language skills can be developed simultaneously rather than sequentially. The learning of a second language is not necessarily a process of habit formation where responses are elicited by stimuli, but also involves the cognitive. Finally, translation into the native language has proven a useful technique indeed in learning a second language, demonstrated in methods such as the Grammar Translation Method. 4. 1 MAIN FEATURES As aforementioned, the ALM follows the natural order of language learning.The use of repetitive drills is justified in shaping a new â€Å"habit† for learning the second 6 language. Stimuli-responses are expected and correct ones are immediately reinforced as conditioning, concurrent with the views of behavioural psychology. The native language also plays a minimal role in the ALM. Only the target language is used within the classroom by both teacher and learners. New material in the target language is also introduced in dialogue form, closest to a natural situational context for learners to gain communicative competence and skills.Modeling is done by the teacher whereby a particular structure of sentence is spoken and learners repeat the sentence, mimicking its sound patterns and intonation, and aiming for identicalness. Slips in learners’ pronunciation of words in the sentence are immediately corrected by the teacher to avoid formation of â€Å"bad habits†. Grammar rules are not taught explicitly but are expected to be induced by the learners through the various examples and patterns that are exposed to them during the lesson.Contrastive analyses are also done between the native language and the target language in order to draw learner’s attention to differences in pattern, structure and sound system of both languages. 5. 1 TECHNIQUES There are many techniques employed in the classroom that advocate the underlying principles (or assumptions) of the ALM, and are also based on the aforementioned two main schools of thought for the said method. 7 One of the main techniques used is of introducing new learning material in the form of a dialogue. A model conversation is analyzed, broken down and memorized through mimicry. Dialogues are seen as a natural conversational ontext that will aid learners in applying learned structures and vocabulary. Many drills are used in the ALM. The backward build-up drill (expansion drill) breaks down a difficult sentence into smaller parts. Usually the last phrase of the sentence is repeated by the learners and then parts are added on, or expanded, until learners are able to repeat the complete sentence without further trouble. Single-slot substitution drills require the learners to substi tute in cues given by the teacher into a particular slot in the sentence. Multiple-slot substitution drills on the other hand, require a higher level of competence from the learners.Learners must recognize particular slots within the sentence to substitute the cues given by the teacher, occasionally having to alter subject-verb agreements as well. Other drills include the repetition drill, chain drill, transformation drill and question-and-answer drill. (Refer to Appendix A) 6. 1 ADVANTAGES As compared to an extreme method like the Grammar Translation Method, where reading and writing are so stressed on that speaking and listening skills are neglected, ALM does develop the aural/oral skills of learners. Learners through the ALM are able to participate in situational contexts competently. 8In addition, learners are more aware of the phonetic aspects of the language. Through modeling and mimicry, learners pay more attention to proper pronunciation and intonation. Errors in pronunciati on are immediately dealt with, while correct responses are positively reinforced. Learners are sensitive to the intonation and are aware of their different functions of questioning, requesting, pleading etc. Through substitution drills, learners also learn to recognize the borders between the phrases that make up the sentence. They are also exposed to a variety of different sentences that have similar structures through repetition drills as well.Transformational drills help learners familiarize with question tags and their corresponding answers, affirmative and negative sentences and even active and passive ones. Such a wide variety of sentence and question structures serve to enhance learners’ communicative ability. 7. 1 DISADVANTAGES Although the drills that are the ALM’s distinguishing feature may be considered one of its strengths, they are also its weakness. Such drills leave no room for creativity, causing learners to lose interest or feel bored in the classroom. When learners lose their motivation, it negatively affects their progress in second language learning.New vocabulary learned is also limited in context. Instead, the sound system and grammatical patterns are emphasized on more. Learners are taught set phrases in gruel repetition in response to certain questions, where the form and structure are 9 highlighted. Consequently, learners are only drilled to respond correctly with answers that are expected of them without caring much for its meaning. For example, the set phrase, â€Å"Fine, thank you,† is taught as a response to the question â€Å"How are you? † which learners use even when they feel otherwise.This phenomenon is comparable to robots that have no cognition and only give particular responses to particular stimuli! There is rarely any variation in learners’ responses other than the ones that have been taught. Therefore, interaction and dialogue is very schematic and unnatural. In short, communicative com petence is still called to question. Learners of the ALM may be able to participate in conversations, but they are rarely spontaneous and it is observed to be rather a case of regurgitating the â€Å"right† responses in a certain situational context from memory.Should they not be able to recall the set phrases that have been learned, they are at a loss as to how to respond to the questions and conversational prompts of the other speaker. 8. 1 RECOMMENDATIONS From the discussion above, it is evident that although communicative competence is insufficient, the ALM drills provide learners with a multitude of structures and grammatical patterns that form the basic foundation for communication. The challenge is to help learners apply the knowledge they have gained to communicating effectively and in a natural manner. 10However, this cannot be done if drills are continuously insisted upon in the classroom. A degree of flexibility is needed on the part of the teacher to allow spontan eous and natural conversation to take place after drilling them as well. Unguided dialogue practice forces the learners to apply what they have been drilled with into a communicative setting, taking into consideration the meaning of the phrases learnt with relevance to the given situation. Model conversations can still be provided, but spontaneous ones allow for creativity and variety in responding according to the individual learner. Communication becomes more natural.With regards to learner motivation, the responsibility is shouldered by both the teacher and the learners themselves. The teacher needs to, again, be flexible and allow for elements not necessarily ALM-like to be incorporated into the lesson, if only for the sake of breaking the monotone. Drills can still be employed of course, but in more interesting ways like role play and physical activities. In essence, the teacher should be creative in her strategies with the aim of increasing the communicative competency of the learners rather than teach by the book. Learners as well, play a major role in their own learning progress.They should maintain a high level of self-motivation by actively participating in tasks and activities and being attentive at all times. 9. 1 CONCLUSION The ALM definitely has its pros and cons in a second language classroom. However, the disadvantages and negative implications can be overcome if a slightly more eclectic approach to second language teaching is taken. Some teachers may stubbornly hold fast to the rules of the ALM and refuse to stray from it. In such a case, the 11 objective of second language teaching should be questioned. Is one’s loyalty to the method or to the goal of aiding learners in achieving communicative competence?If it is the latter, it does not matter what method is used in the classroom as long as ultimately, learners gain valuable communicative skills. As Celce-Murcia illustrates (as cited by Abdel-Rahman Abu-Melhim in the International Foru m of Teaching and Studies): â€Å"Today, language students are considered successful if they can communicate effectively in their second or foreign language, whereas two decades ago the accuracy of the language produced would most likely be the major criterion contributing to the judgment of a student’s success or lack of success. † (1991, p. 125)One single method should never be used exclusively in the classroom because it shall always remain flawed. It is the teacher’s responsibility to determine her teaching goals and appropriate methods to be used; where an eclectic one might better achieve those goals. Therefore, the teacher of a second language must be prepared to modify and adjust her methods to suit the different learning needs of the learners. 12 APPENDIX A Here are examples of the different drills used in the Audio-lingual Method: Repetition drill Repetition drill is the normal drill, usually used to teach the lines of the dialogue.Students are require d to repeat after the teacher’s model until they are almost identical. Chain drill The Chain drill uses maybe the first few lines of a simple dialogue. The teacher begins by addressing a student, or asking him a question. The student responds, then turns to the student beside him and asks him a similar question. The second student responds and the chain goes on until each student has participated. This allows for the teacher to check learner’s speech. Transformation drill The teacher may give learners a question, and the learners are then required to formulate an answer from the form of the question given, and vice versa.Or, an affirmative sentence is given and learners need to transform it into the negative. This can be used for teaching active and passive sentences, as well as direct and reported speech. Question-and-answer drill This drill allows for learners to practice answering questions accurately and rapidly. It can also be done the other way round, where the l earners form the questions on cue. 13 REFERENCES Abdel-Rahman Abu-Melhim. 2009. Re-evaluating the Effectiveness of the Audiolingual Method in Teaching English to Speakers of Other Languages.International Forum of Teaching and Studies 5(2): 1-9. Britto, Rory. 2009. The Dissipation of Methods in ESL: Expanding to Fill the Void. The Journal of Education p. 75-84. Brown, H. Douglas. 2001. Teaching by Principles: An Interactive Approach to Language Pedagogy, p. 13-37. Second edition. New York: Addison Wesley Longman, Inc. Larsen-Freeman, Diane. 2000. Techniques and Principles in Language Teaching. Second edition. New York: Oxford University Press. Savignon, Sandra J. 2001. Communicative Language Teaching. Theory Into Practice 26(4): 235. Audio Lingual Method The Audio lingual method or the Army Method is a style of teaching used in language Instruction. It is based on behaviorist ideology, which professes that certain trait of living things, and in this case humans, could be trained through a system of reinforcement and correct use of a trait would receive positive feedback while incorrect use of that trait would receive negative feedback. So in the Audio Lingual Method, the instructor would present the correct model of a sentence and the students would have to repeat it. The teacher would then continue by presenting new words for the students to sample in the same structure. In audio lingual’s there is no explicit grammar instruction so that everything is simply memorized in form. The idea is for the students to practice the particular construct until they can use it spontaneously. In this manner, the lessons are built on static drills in which the students have little or no control on their own output; the teacher is expecting a particular response and not providing that will result in a student receiving negative feedback. As mentioned, lessons in the classroom focus on the correct imitation of the teacher by the students. Not only are the students expected to produce the correct output, but attention is also paid to correct pronunciation. Although correct grammar is expected in usage, no explicit grammatical instruction is given. Furthermore, the target language is the only language to be used in the classroom. This method is one of the three main ways to teach a foreign language. Along with â€Å"the direct method,† the audio lingual approach keeps the majority of the language instruction in the target language. Audio lingual teaching concentrates on drills that teach grammar while the direct method concentrates more on vocabulary. When the grammar of the target language is explained in the native language, the method is called communicative language teaching. The method relies on drilling, habit formulation, and the use of a language lab, which might remind you of your high school language class. Grammar is not taught outright, but instead language is taught in its correct grammatical structure. Although the method made sense for its original purpose and was successful in allowing basic communication. The method relies on drilling, habit formulation, and the use of a language lab, which might remind you of your high school language class. Grammar is not taught outright, but instead language is taught in its correct grammatical structure. Although the method made sense for its original purpose and was successful in allowing basic communication. The Audio-lingual Method is still in use today, though normally as a part of individual lessons rather than as the foundation of the course. These types of lessons can be popular as they are relatively simple, from the teacher's point of view, and the learner always knows what to expect. But it has been heavily criticized, especially by linguist Noam Chomsky. The rigidity of the method left little room for the spontaneity of free-flowing conversation, which made it difficult to use the language in the real world. Audio Lingual Method 1 GGGV 2044 METHODS IN TEACHING ENGLISH AS A SECOND LANGUAGE Semester 2 2009/2010 AUDIO-LINGUAL METHOD: A DISCUSSION (INDIVIDUAL ASSIGNMENT) LECTURER: DR. HAMIDAH BT. YAMAT @ AHMAD LISA KWAN SU LI A123040 TESL/2 2 1. 1 INTRODUCTION The Audio-lingual Method (ALM), by its very name – â€Å"audio† and â€Å"lingual† – refers to a language teaching approach that focuses on two aspects of language, namely listening and speaking.Unlike its predecessor, the Grammar Translation Method, which focuses on reading and writing skills, this approach chooses to emphasize on the first two stages in the natural order of language learning (listening, speaking, reading followed by writing) with the belief that learners who are better speakers and listeners consequently make better readers and writers. The ALM has a firm foundation in the theories of both structural linguistics and behavioural psychology, and thus incorporates techniques and strategies that advocate the conce pts and assumptions of language learning from both schools of thought.The structural linguistics view of language learning says that language is learned through awareness and specific attention to the patterns and structure of the language. One of the ALM’s main characteristics is its use of repetition and drills that draw learners’ attention to the patterns of the target language which are subsequently memorized and repeated to automaticity. Language learning from the view of behavioural psychology on the other hand, occurs by conditioning and habit formation of accurate responses to stimuli. The right response for a stimulus is modelled by the teacher beforehand and then drilled into the learners repeatedly until such responses become a â€Å"habit† that enables learners to successfully produce accurate responses without clues or prompting by the teacher. This discussion aims to further understand the Audio-lingual Method and explore the advantages and disadva ntages of employing it in the second language classroom. The author also puts out her recommendations for the use of the ALM in the second language classroom. 2. 1 HISTORY By the first half of the twentieth century, the Direct Method had lost its popularity in the U. S.However, it is believed that the decline of the Direct Method brought about the emergence of the ALM. As Brown (2001) puts it: â€Å"†¦ by the middle of the twentieth century, the Direct Method was revived and redirected into what was probably the most visible of all language teaching â€Å"revolutions† in the modern era, the Audio-lingual Method. † The U. S. educational institutions at the time still believed that a reading approach like the Grammar Translation Method was more practical than an oral one. Therefore the 1930s and 1940s saw the Grammar Translation Method going strong in all schools across the U.S. However, after World War II, the U. S. saw an urgent need for her to be orally proficien t in the language of her allies as well as foes. This led to a drastic change in 4 the current view of language teaching from a mere reading approach to one with a heavier emphasis on aural and oral skills. Special intensive language programs were developed by the U. S. army which came to be known as the Army Specialized Training Program (ASTP), or more simply, the Army Method. In the 1950s, the Army Method was renamed the Audiolingual Method. 3. 1 PRINCIPLES OF ALMSome of the main principles of language learning in the ALM are stated by Alkhuli 2005 (as cited by Abdel-Rahman Abu-Melhim in the International Forum of Teaching and Studies). One of these principles is that the second language learning process should be similar to that of first language acquisition. This complies with the natural order of language learning which is listening, speaking, reading and finally, writing. It is believed that the learner first learns to speak what he has listened to, then read what he has spoke n, and write what he has read.Therefore, the ALM emphasizes on listening and speaking skills in order to facilitate the progress of reading and writing skills besides increasing communicative competency. Another principle is that the second language is best acquired by habit formation. A habit is created when an action is repeated and is subsequently produced 5 in response to certain stimuli almost without conscious activity. This is achieved via the repetitive pattern practices that are part and parcel of the ALM. Translation of the target language into the native language is considered harmful and will hinder acquisition of the second language.Such translations are believed to impede the mastery or control of the second language. When the target language is used in all circumstances in the classroom, learners learn to make direct connections between the vocabulary and its semantics in the target language itself, which is ideal for effective second language learning. However, these principles are merely assumptions. Counter-arguments include: second language learning is completely different from native language acquisition in many different aspects.In addition, the natural order of language learning that the ALM stresses on is irrelevant because the four language skills can be developed simultaneously rather than sequentially. The learning of a second language is not necessarily a process of habit formation where responses are elicited by stimuli, but also involves the cognitive. Finally, translation into the native language has proven a useful technique indeed in learning a second language, demonstrated in methods such as the Grammar Translation Method. 4. 1 MAIN FEATURES As aforementioned, the ALM follows the natural order of language learning.The use of repetitive drills is justified in shaping a new â€Å"habit† for learning the second 6 language. Stimuli-responses are expected and correct ones are immediately reinforced as conditioning, concurrent with the views of behavioural psychology. The native language also plays a minimal role in the ALM. Only the target language is used within the classroom by both teacher and learners. New material in the target language is also introduced in dialogue form, closest to a natural situational context for learners to gain communicative competence and skills.Modeling is done by the teacher whereby a particular structure of sentence is spoken and learners repeat the sentence, mimicking its sound patterns and intonation, and aiming for identicalness. Slips in learners’ pronunciation of words in the sentence are immediately corrected by the teacher to avoid formation of â€Å"bad habits†. Grammar rules are not taught explicitly but are expected to be induced by the learners through the various examples and patterns that are exposed to them during the lesson.Contrastive analyses are also done between the native language and the target language in order to draw learner’s attention to differences in pattern, structure and sound system of both languages. 5. 1 TECHNIQUES There are many techniques employed in the classroom that advocate the underlying principles (or assumptions) of the ALM, and are also based on the aforementioned two main schools of thought for the said method. 7 One of the main techniques used is of introducing new learning material in the form of a dialogue. A model conversation is analyzed, broken down and memorized through mimicry. Dialogues are seen as a natural conversational ontext that will aid learners in applying learned structures and vocabulary. Many drills are used in the ALM. The backward build-up drill (expansion drill) breaks down a difficult sentence into smaller parts. Usually the last phrase of the sentence is repeated by the learners and then parts are added on, or expanded, until learners are able to repeat the complete sentence without further trouble. Single-slot substitution drills require the learners to substi tute in cues given by the teacher into a particular slot in the sentence. Multiple-slot substitution drills on the other hand, require a higher level of competence from the learners.Learners must recognize particular slots within the sentence to substitute the cues given by the teacher, occasionally having to alter subject-verb agreements as well. Other drills include the repetition drill, chain drill, transformation drill and question-and-answer drill. (Refer to Appendix A) 6. 1 ADVANTAGES As compared to an extreme method like the Grammar Translation Method, where reading and writing are so stressed on that speaking and listening skills are neglected, ALM does develop the aural/oral skills of learners. Learners through the ALM are able to participate in situational contexts competently. 8In addition, learners are more aware of the phonetic aspects of the language. Through modeling and mimicry, learners pay more attention to proper pronunciation and intonation. Errors in pronunciati on are immediately dealt with, while correct responses are positively reinforced. Learners are sensitive to the intonation and are aware of their different functions of questioning, requesting, pleading etc. Through substitution drills, learners also learn to recognize the borders between the phrases that make up the sentence. They are also exposed to a variety of different sentences that have similar structures through repetition drills as well.Transformational drills help learners familiarize with question tags and their corresponding answers, affirmative and negative sentences and even active and passive ones. Such a wide variety of sentence and question structures serve to enhance learners’ communicative ability. 7. 1 DISADVANTAGES Although the drills that are the ALM’s distinguishing feature may be considered one of its strengths, they are also its weakness. Such drills leave no room for creativity, causing learners to lose interest or feel bored in the classroom. When learners lose their motivation, it negatively affects their progress in second language learning.New vocabulary learned is also limited in context. Instead, the sound system and grammatical patterns are emphasized on more. Learners are taught set phrases in gruel repetition in response to certain questions, where the form and structure are 9 highlighted. Consequently, learners are only drilled to respond correctly with answers that are expected of them without caring much for its meaning. For example, the set phrase, â€Å"Fine, thank you,† is taught as a response to the question â€Å"How are you? † which learners use even when they feel otherwise.This phenomenon is comparable to robots that have no cognition and only give particular responses to particular stimuli! There is rarely any variation in learners’ responses other than the ones that have been taught. Therefore, interaction and dialogue is very schematic and unnatural. In short, communicative com petence is still called to question. Learners of the ALM may be able to participate in conversations, but they are rarely spontaneous and it is observed to be rather a case of regurgitating the â€Å"right† responses in a certain situational context from memory.Should they not be able to recall the set phrases that have been learned, they are at a loss as to how to respond to the questions and conversational prompts of the other speaker. 8. 1 RECOMMENDATIONS From the discussion above, it is evident that although communicative competence is insufficient, the ALM drills provide learners with a multitude of structures and grammatical patterns that form the basic foundation for communication. The challenge is to help learners apply the knowledge they have gained to communicating effectively and in a natural manner. 10However, this cannot be done if drills are continuously insisted upon in the classroom. A degree of flexibility is needed on the part of the teacher to allow spontan eous and natural conversation to take place after drilling them as well. Unguided dialogue practice forces the learners to apply what they have been drilled with into a communicative setting, taking into consideration the meaning of the phrases learnt with relevance to the given situation. Model conversations can still be provided, but spontaneous ones allow for creativity and variety in responding according to the individual learner. Communication becomes more natural.With regards to learner motivation, the responsibility is shouldered by both the teacher and the learners themselves. The teacher needs to, again, be flexible and allow for elements not necessarily ALM-like to be incorporated into the lesson, if only for the sake of breaking the monotone. Drills can still be employed of course, but in more interesting ways like role play and physical activities. In essence, the teacher should be creative in her strategies with the aim of increasing the communicative competency of the learners rather than teach by the book. Learners as well, play a major role in their own learning progress.They should maintain a high level of self-motivation by actively participating in tasks and activities and being attentive at all times. 9. 1 CONCLUSION The ALM definitely has its pros and cons in a second language classroom. However, the disadvantages and negative implications can be overcome if a slightly more eclectic approach to second language teaching is taken. Some teachers may stubbornly hold fast to the rules of the ALM and refuse to stray from it. In such a case, the 11 objective of second language teaching should be questioned. Is one’s loyalty to the method or to the goal of aiding learners in achieving communicative competence?If it is the latter, it does not matter what method is used in the classroom as long as ultimately, learners gain valuable communicative skills. As Celce-Murcia illustrates (as cited by Abdel-Rahman Abu-Melhim in the International Foru m of Teaching and Studies): â€Å"Today, language students are considered successful if they can communicate effectively in their second or foreign language, whereas two decades ago the accuracy of the language produced would most likely be the major criterion contributing to the judgment of a student’s success or lack of success. † (1991, p. 125)One single method should never be used exclusively in the classroom because it shall always remain flawed. It is the teacher’s responsibility to determine her teaching goals and appropriate methods to be used; where an eclectic one might better achieve those goals. Therefore, the teacher of a second language must be prepared to modify and adjust her methods to suit the different learning needs of the learners. 12 APPENDIX A Here are examples of the different drills used in the Audio-lingual Method: Repetition drill Repetition drill is the normal drill, usually used to teach the lines of the dialogue.Students are require d to repeat after the teacher’s model until they are almost identical. Chain drill The Chain drill uses maybe the first few lines of a simple dialogue. The teacher begins by addressing a student, or asking him a question. The student responds, then turns to the student beside him and asks him a similar question. The second student responds and the chain goes on until each student has participated. This allows for the teacher to check learner’s speech. Transformation drill The teacher may give learners a question, and the learners are then required to formulate an answer from the form of the question given, and vice versa.Or, an affirmative sentence is given and learners need to transform it into the negative. This can be used for teaching active and passive sentences, as well as direct and reported speech. Question-and-answer drill This drill allows for learners to practice answering questions accurately and rapidly. It can also be done the other way round, where the l earners form the questions on cue. 13 REFERENCES Abdel-Rahman Abu-Melhim. 2009. Re-evaluating the Effectiveness of the Audiolingual Method in Teaching English to Speakers of Other Languages.International Forum of Teaching and Studies 5(2): 1-9. Britto, Rory. 2009. The Dissipation of Methods in ESL: Expanding to Fill the Void. The Journal of Education p. 75-84. Brown, H. Douglas. 2001. Teaching by Principles: An Interactive Approach to Language Pedagogy, p. 13-37. Second edition. New York: Addison Wesley Longman, Inc. Larsen-Freeman, Diane. 2000. Techniques and Principles in Language Teaching. Second edition. New York: Oxford University Press. Savignon, Sandra J. 2001. Communicative Language Teaching. Theory Into Practice 26(4): 235.

Apartheid in South Africa Essay

The Apartheid legislation was a system of governance that made a huge impact in South Africa in the 20th century. It was introduced by the national party after they were elected in the 1948 election. It was a form of segregation that discriminated against the races in South Africa. It was the law in South Africa for 46 years. The Apartheid sparked lots of internal resistance with violent riots and protests taking place by groups of people. Nelson Mandela was a leading force in the opposition on Apartheid and did everything in his powers to destroy it. His voice was heard all over the country when he was the leader of Anti Apartheid movements and when he was in jail. Apartheid Legislation had a detrimental impact on society in South Africa. It was pioneered in 1948 by the newly appointed national party of South Africa when they came to power. The struggle for the end of Apartheid was long lived as it lasted until 1994 when the National party lost the election. Apartheid was the segregation of the South African people into different race groups such coloured, white, Asian and Indian. Residential areas were segregated as well as Education, medi-care, beaches, and other public areas. Although the residential areas and other public facilities were separated, the quality of living for the blacks was substantially less than that of which the whites enjoyed. Sports in South Africa were also majorly affected as South Africa was banned from some international sports such as cricket. Women weren’t left out of the equation as they struggled to gain proper rights and freedoms as most of the men experienced. Black people or natives, over time, were deprived of their citizenships and forced to live in tribes with their own people away from the city. Numerous laws were made that affected the black people immensely and stripped them of their rights and freedoms. Apartheid struck society hugely at the time of its induction and changed the way life was lived. Many factors contributed to the severity of Apartheid, no more so than the new laws that were created shortly after its introduction. These laws were made to discriminate directly against the blacks of South Africa and create white supremacy. As a result of these laws many black people in the community struggled for basic rights and freedoms. The first powerful law to be created was the  Preservation of Separate Amenities Act 1953. This law separated all parts of society from blacks and whites. The separation wasn’t equal and as a result of this the black people got the inferior side of every facility. This was the separation of every aspect of society from beaches and parks to toilets and shops. The main aim was to exclude citizens from Premises, vehicles or services based on their race. The best facilities were reserved for the white people. Education was not spared as another law was made (Bantu Education Act 1951) that restricted black children from receiving the same education as the white children. The government at the time thought that the career opportunities for black kids were limited and they were best to learn skills that would help their families in their tribes. As of that day, the black children received a substantially lower level of education than the white children of South Africa. The government spent six times as much money on white education which only made up about 20% of the country at that time. Nelson Mandela valued Education so highly in his views and once said that â€Å"Education is the most powerful weapon which you can use to change the world. [1] Both of these laws helped to create a large gap in society between the black and white people, one being very much better off than the other. Apartheid in South Africa aimed to strip the black people of all their rights and freedoms. This was achieved by two controversial laws. The Abolition of passes act 1953 and the Bantu Homeland act 1952. The abolition of passes act forced black people to carry identifica tion with them at all times. A pass included a photograph, details of place of origin, employment record, tax payments, and encounters with the police. It was a criminal offence to not be carrying a pass when encountered by a police officer. Africans were frequently harassed for their passes and countless numbers were arrested for it. Local citizens burned them or didn’t carry them as a sign of protest. Mass protests by blacks by not carrying their passes lead to the murder of 69 in the ‘Sharpeville Massacre’. The Bantu Homeland act was the second law that took everything away from the blacks. Through this law, the white government declares that the lands reserved for black Africans are independent nations therefore, not being a part of South Africa. In this way, the government was able to strip millions of blacks of their South African citizenship and force them to become residents of their new homelands. Blacks were then considered foreigners in white-controlled South Africa, and needed passports to enter. Blacks only entered to perform jobs that assisted whites. The law was made to ensure that the White people of South Africa would inhabit most of the main areas of the country leaving the Blacks to live on the outskirts in shocking conditions. A quote by an influential student leader Steve Bantu Biko â€Å"The blacks are tired of standing at the touchlines to witness a game that they should be playing. They want to do things for themselves and all by themselves. â€Å"[2] suggests that the blacks were sick of having no place in society and want their own rights and freedoms which was the obvious feeling at the time. This law is a huge violation of human rights and really emphasised the affects of the new government regime at the time. The Anti Apartheid movements were influential movements that fought for the destruction of Apartheid legislation in South Africa. They were a worldwide movement that aimed to abolish South Africa’s government system of Racial Apartheid. The anti Apartheid movement came into action both within and outside South Africa. The ANC was the first movement to be created. A second organization Split from the ANC and called themselves the Pan Africanist Congress (PAC). They used civil disobedience, strikes and protest marches to oppose the apartheid legislation. After the ‘Sharpeville Massacre’, when police opened fire and killed 69 protestors, the direction of the movement changed. The ANC decided to adopt armed resistance against the state. This sparked many protestors to speak out. Both Organisations were banned after this Massacre and it forced them to move into hiding and continue their operations in private. They created an armed military wing ‘Umkhonto we Sizwe’ lead by Nelson Mandela and planned attacks on the state. After their first attack, their leader Mandela was sent to jail for life along with a few other leaders. At the trail to his sentence Mandela he said â€Å"We are not anti-white, we are against white supremacy †¦ we have condemned racialism no matter by whom it is professed. [3]This quote shows that Mandela wasn’t racist and just wanted quality and proper human rights. Many bouts of protest broke out in South Africa after the massacre and trial, mostly by school students, and groups were made to speak out against the Apartheid legislation. The movement were starting to gain momentum and there voices were being heard further around the world. The Anti Apartheid movements were the cornerstone to the destruction of Apartheid legislation. The movements are the reason for the popularity loss of Apartheid and the rise of Nelson Mandela as a civil rights activist. The Arrests and killing of influential members of the movement only sparked up a bigger, more aggressive reaction and more people wanted to get involved in the cause. The black conscientious movement was made by black tertiary students in 1971 and represented black pride. This idea of black pride empowered many South Africans to believe that they are a strong people and can fight for their rights. Students in Soweto in 1979 rose up against Apartheid inspired by many around them. While in protest 29 were killed and many injured by police opening fire. This sparked more and more people to rise up against the state. Labour unions played a massive role in the struggle against apartheid. In 1979 as a result of the protesting, black trade unions were legalized which was a massive win. At the same time church groups also spoke out against the evils of Apartheid. All of these people were inspired by the actions of the Anti Apartheid movements that went before them. Thabo Mbeki a South African Politian summed up the views of many South Africans at the time by saying â€Å"South Africa belongs to all who live in it, black or white. [4] This view was felt across the country by the struggling black people. The ANC and PAC affected most of the population of South Africa in some way and help get rid of the Apartheid legislation. They were the cause for the changes that took place in society over the years. Nelson Mandela played arguably the biggest role in the destruction of the Apartheid legislation in South Africa. Working with the ANC he S poke out against Apartheid and the injustice to his people. Mandela worked hard as the leader of the ANC and planned many protests on the state to help push for the abolishment of Apartheid. He was one of the most influential speakers of his time and many oppressed people heard his voice loud and clear. Under apartheid Mandela served nearly 27 years in prison but he never gave up the fight. When Mandela was imprisoned at Robben Island he continued his work and teachings. In South Africa and around the world, Nelson Mandela’s anti-apartheid messages gained in popularity. This meant that his voice was heard by more and more people. Many tried to free him when he was in jail. Support for Mandela was so immense that he was able to be equitted of his charges and released in 1990. Before he was released the PM of South Africa at the time said â€Å"As soon as he renounces violence and undertakes not to start violence in South Africa, government will release him. â€Å"[5]The quotes suggest that the government did not want any further violence from his demonstrations in the near future otherwise he would be kept in jail and if he showed no signs of violence he would be let out. This shows trust between the two. He was able to become the leader of the ANC once again and was a leading force in South Africa. He was able to negotiate a multi-racial election in 1994 where his party won. He became prime minister and with this he abolished Apartheid legislation. In his Inaugural speech as prime minister he says â€Å"Today we are entering a new era for our country and our people. Today we celebrate not the victory of a party, but a victory for all the people of South Africa†[6]. This optimism really highlighted his attitude towards life and freedom and is why he was such a loved and influential leader. Without his voice throughout the country and the world, South Africa would have struggled to get out the Government legislation that was Apartheid Apartheid legislation in South Africa was immensely influential on society. It was one of the worst legislations to ever be put down by a government. The black community of South Africa was severely affected by this legislation with most of their rights and freedoms stripped off them. As a result of the laws and other factors, the majority of the native South Africans lived a lift without the freedom and rights that most enjoy today. Nelson Mandela with the help of the Anti Apartheid organisations pushed to stop the legislation in its tracks. He was eventually successful with his peruse of freedom and because of this he is one of the most influential men to have ever lived.

Marketing Plan for a new Organic goods company Assignment - 1

Marketing Plan for a new Organic goods company - Assignment Example In this proposed marketing plan, a particular fruit i.e. organic apple has been taken into concern for promoting in the current organic fruit business industry of the UK. Now, the company is intending to expand its business in the emerging UK food business industry. In this regard, the proposed marketing proposal for the company would focus on critically analysing different marketing research tools such as PESTLE, SWOT and marketing segmentation strategies in the context of UK food industry. Additionally, the proposed marketing plan would also incorporate the process of selecting effective marketing approach and different actions in order to enable OABC to achieve its business objectives in the growing food industry of the UK. A financial plan, metrics and appropriate implementation as well as controlling process have further been illustrated for the company in order to attain success of its desired business objectives. Table of Contents 1. Executive Summary 2 2. Situation Analysis 4 2.1 PESTLE Analysis 4 2.2 SWOT Analysis 6 3. Market Segmentation 7 3.1 Targeting 8 3.2 Positioning 8 4. Objectives 9 5. Marketing Strategy 10 6. Marketing Programs 11 6.1 Marketing Mix Strategy 11 7. Financial Plans 12 8. Metrics & Implementation Controls 13 References 15 Bibliography 17 2. Situation Analysis The aspect of situational analysis involves the study of demonstrating the scenario with respect to external environmental factors of a country or a location, wherein the business to be performed (Grabosky & Braithwaite, 1993). The following situation analysis in the form of conducting PESTLE and SWOT would examine the major influencing factors in accordance with the business objectives of OABC. 2.1 PESTLE Analysis Political Factor Although the political condition of a country has major influence on a particular business, the adequate flexibility along with greater deregulatory policies within the political framework of the UK would eventually provide major opportunities for O ABC to market organic apples. The well-structured governmental regulations and the adequate balances of the regulatory processes in the UK have long been identified to provide extensive support for the foreign entrepreneurs. Therefore, the political factors would provide a major support for the company to successfully establish its business unit in the respective country (Coventry University, 2013). Economic Factor The economic factors such as income level of the consumers, interest rates portfolio, taxation programmes, exchange and inflation rates of the UK can also be considered to ensure providing adequate support to OABC in successfully achieving its desired financial goals. Specially mentioning, the higher economic growth with regard to Gross Domestic Product (GDP) rate of the nation would also provide an effective support to the company to substantially market and promote its quality based highly nutritional organic apples (Agriculture Horticulture Development Board, 2013). So cial Factor In the context of social factor, the increasing number of adult population along with budding changes in their food habits would also facilitate OABC to effectively perform its business operations in the UK market. Moreover, the increasing diversity of the UK populaces along with greater mobility of the communities can also provide greater

Business Law Rubric 2 Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

Business Law Rubric 2 - Essay Example In each and every country, there are legal requirements that ought to be met in the construction industry in order to ensure that there is compliance with standard expectations of buildings. A building inspector is tasked with ensuring that all the buildings under construction pass various tests in their construction stages to ensure that they are safe to the people (Mallor, 1012). Legally, building inspectors are tasked by the department of construction in local governments to ensure that they inspect all the buildings to see if they comply with safety regulation stipulated by the law. A building inspector is mainly concerned with ensuring that illegal structures are not erected since these can pose a safety threat to the people. Municipalities are often responsible for overseeing all the construction work since they deal with issues related to local governments. The building inspector gives advice to the property owners about the steps that can be taken to ensure that all construction work is in compliance with the expected standards. The interviewee is a potential candidate to work as a building inspector and this interview has been designed to get more details about how he views this career. As such, the interview has been designed to get more perceptions about this profession from the candidate. How the job is related to the law -The bank loan officers are compelled by the law to act within certain parameters to ensure that they do not violate the rules and regulations that are expected in this area. This career is related to the law since it is stipulated in the constitution all banks should act within a specific legal framework. A bank loan officer is responsible for vetting loan applicants to see if they meet all the requirements or if they have not been declared insolvent at one time (Cillers, 218). A bank loan officer is expected to verify all the documents possessed by the applicant to establish if he qualifies for the loan. In

Week 1 Assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words

Week 1 - Assignment Example This in turn have benefitted people, insurance companies and employers to get treatment with less cost and better quality especially for uninsured or under-insured patients. On the global part, the countries with these facilities are getting employment for their people. Impact on losers is yet less as this move is meeting demand-supply gap. However, increased dependence on same can adversely impact competitiveness and earnings of U.S medical professional, insurance companies, employers and also quality of services in these countries. Patients going abroad, where most of them are either uninsured or under insured can turn up as and a greater risk as no claim can be made in case of accident. Apart from this the increasing medical tourism in any particular country can result in increasing the cost of medical services. Negotiated services from medical professionals and insurance industry can reduce the impact, which if not controlled now, will affect them as well. Reality of globalization in health care industry must be seen in deeper sense. It is an observed trend that many people move from one country to another country in order to get medical treatment. The globalization in health care industry is good option for the people who are not able to get quality treatment in their own country. However, on the other hand this globalization seems to be no good option if foreign patients are treated at cost of local patients especially in Asian side

Hamlet Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words - 1

Hamlet - Essay Example So Hamlet had to study well into the matter and handle the murder plan successfully. To understand the fact that his uncle killed is the Father is not an easy task for him. For this, he had to do something very calculative and for this he decided to act insane in front of people. Hamlet did not want to kill a person who is of a clean heart. What if he killed Claudius and he turn out to be innocent? In that case, Hamlet will turn out to be guilty and he would not be able to live in peace. The reason for Hamlet’s hesitation is that he doesn’t want to kill his uncle who is in a state of clean consciousness. So he acted insane and thought of setting a stage for a play which resembled to the story of his father’s life. The revenge of his Father’s killer was boiling in his body but he took time to take revenge, because he did not want to be wrong in the end. Hamlet, wanted to kill Claudius when he is guilty of his evil deed of killing the hamlet’s father .The reason is valid because then Claudius would himself realize that he deserves death from the hands of Hamlet. In a real sense, Hamlet gets only one chance to kill Claudius, but he staged a drama wherein the story resembled that of his father’s murder . Hamlet has lost his Father and definitely wants to kill his murderer. But now the murderer has become his uncle and step-father, as his mother married his uncle, who is the murderer. Here Hamlet has to confront many problems in order to reach to Claudius, who is his Father’s murderer and the king of Denmark. He had devised a series of attempts to block the reign of Claudius and stop the royalty of the new King. By killing Claudius, Hamlet will give peace to his Father’s soul and convince his mother, that he is the murderer of her ex- husband, who is the real king of Denmark. Even Hamlet would be convinced that he is killing a person who is guilty of his own evil deed. The story ‘Hamlet’ is central ly based on the revenge and how the young prince plans to kill his Father’s murderer. In this story, Hamlet’s mother is maintaining an incestuous relationship as she marries the brother of her ex- husband. Hamlet’s mother the Queen, does not have any involvement in the killing of King Hamlet. The delaying of the killing of King Claudius is the most controversial question in the whole story. People are alarmed to find that knowing the killer of his Father; he is not doing anything to fulfill the revenge. He knows he will kill the murderer of his Father, the then King Hamlet. But the question is who killed the King in real. He wanted to confirm the killer, then take a solid reaction. So here by delaying the death of Claudius, Hamlet has done justice to himself and the Claudius. This story also portrays that Hamlet is insane and this is to show people that he is not sure or unsure about his Father’s killer. This also leaves a doubt in the mind of the reader and the audience. People really feel that he has gone mad until they find the drama arranged by Hamlet really kills the Claudius. The Hamlet could have killed Claudius very earlier, which could have spoiled, the whole thrill of the story. Here just acting insane, Hamlet played a game with Claudius of

Security problem in Taiwan Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words

Security problem in Taiwan - Essay Example Remarkably lax policies have made Taiwanese nightclubs a heaven for alcohol and substance abusers and sexual offenders. It has become a favourite pastime for a large population to go to clubs late at night and abuse illegal drugs. However, there is not the growing issue of illegal drugs only which is contributing to chaos in the country. There are other dangers lurking in the shadows of nightclub culture which have more far-reaching consequences. These dangers are related to unfortunate incidents of rape, kidnapping, and assault which are becoming very common in Taiwan because a very facilitating environment is provided for such crimes in the country. This environment raises the probability rate of such crimes. In order to help resolve this issue, I propose the solution based on 12 am curfew. This curfew is already being practiced in many countries around the globe where same kind of nightclub dangers were encountered as in Taiwan. This solution is effective because Despite the media focus on drugs like ecstasy, many incidents of assault and rape have also been reported in Taiwan because of young women not being able to defend themselves in an intoxicated state. Especially in a culture where drinking is heavily promoted, violence is endemic. Taiwan is a country which comes to life late at night. It would not be an exaggerated statement if said that it is a country which never sleeps. Due to a plethora of nightclubs which remain open to visitors all hours at night, the streets glow with hedonistic abandon and are seen packed with jubilant people looking for all kinds of activities. This culture leads to two big problems, vandalism and drug abuse. The state of Springfield police statistics also serve to prove the efficacy of 12 am curfew. For example, a report compares the number of calls for a six month period before and after enforcement of the 1 am curfew. It is revealed that â€Å"the calls for service declined from 1,197 to

Presentation Essentials Mary Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Presentation Essentials Mary - Essay Example In every country, there are laws that govern the relationship between employees and employers including reporting mechanisms and channels. This paper seeks to compare the rights of employees and responsibilities of employers in the United States and Europe in relation to Mary’s case study. In the United States, employees are subjected to things like, benefits, breaks, vacations, leaves, pay, and safety. These elements stabilize employees in any given company. The employment law in the United States requires that employees be given equal opportunities without any form of discrimination. This makes employees feel protected and safe in the workplace. Employees also enjoy freedom of expression. This ensures that the opinions and ideas are considered so as to keep the company activities moving smoothly and fairly (David, 2010). Employees and employers are obligated to one another to uphold each other’s rights. The responsibilities and rights of employers and employees respec tively relate to such things as the provision of employment terms and conditions, health and safety, rights to minimum wage, and equal opportunities. ... These bodies also set number of hours that employees are expected to work in a week. The form of relationship existing between employers and employees in United States is that of master to servant, employees are obligated to recognize their employer’s authority. However, employers also have the responsibility to protect their employees and treat them fairly as dictated by employment. Some of the obligations that both employers and employees are expected to observe towards each other include: regard and respect, health and safety, working hours and pay, loyalty, and fairness. Therefore employees should feel respected, honored and valued by their employers. On the other hand, employers are expecting their employees to work and perform their duties as stipulated in the terms and conditions of the job description. On the other hand, Europe has labor laws and regulations that determine the rights of employees and responsibilities of employers in the European countries. The European employment law governs employment in terms of working conditions, health and safety, and consulting and informing employees. The rights of employees and responsibilities of employers are very important in the European nations. They uphold laws of minimum wage, disability, pensions, work opportunities, medical insurance, and retirements. This is similar to the United States which plays a significant part in the process of hiring. Some employment specific laws that are common to Europe and the United States include the following: Anti-discrimination Working time and employment contract Equal treatment of all employees at workplace Protection of personal data Informing and consulting employees Social security and right to pension Fixed, part, and posted workers Parental leave and

Social work theory Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 3000 words

Social work theory - Essay Example 2). There are several models and theories about the cause of substance abuse and dependence used to provide an explanation of addiction. These models have strong implications on the interventions that practitioners implement. An explanation that addiction/alcoholism is a consequence of an individual’s personal choice is adhered to by proponents of the moral model. The view that indulgence in alcohol and substance abuse is a personal choice makes it justifiable for an individual to be punished. Another perspective views addiction/alcoholism is related to the parent’s excessive neglect during childhood. This type of explanation is characteristic of the socio-cultural and psychological models of addiction. Several studies reveal that people who become addicts have underlying psychological disorders and these interact with certain socio-cultural factors to cause further exacerbation of substance abuse. . In the well-being paradigm, â€Å"substance abuse is viewed as reflecting an underlying, intra-psychological deficiency† (Maton et al., 1992, p. 81). These psychological problems cause emotional pain and relief from pain is readily offered by alcohol and drug use. On the other hand, the disease concept of substance abuse postulates that addiction is a primary disease and not secondary or corollary to another condition. â€Å"Perhaps the greatest advantage to the articulation that addiction is a disease has been to remove the moral stigma attached to chemical dependency and to replace it with an emphasis on treatment of an illness† (Fisher et al, 1997, p. 45). However, a major criticism of this model is the notion that it relieves the substance abuser from taking responsibility of his/her behavior. It paints a picture of the alcoholic or addict as powerless and a passive victim in the drinking/ drug use behavior. To their defense, proponents of the

Short Answer Format on five different topics Essay - 1

Short Answer Format on five different topics - Essay Example our war with Spain after the USS Maine was sunk on February 15, 1898 while at anchor at Havana (Cuba) harbor, resulting in the death of 266 officers and men. America’s victory marked her rise as a world power. Subsequent troubling experiences running former Spanish colonies, sending soldiers to die in two world wars, and leading the war against Communism (Cold War) and terrorism continue to fuel debates on whether the US should be isolationist or accept the interdependence of nations in an age of globalization and perform its unique role as the world’s democratic superpower (Cole 85-89). Eleanor Roosevelt was the wife of four-term (1933-1945) US President Franklin Delano Roosevelt and the niece of two-term (1901-1909) President Theodore Roosevelt. She was born on October 11, 1884 and died on November 7, 1962. Many consider Mrs. Roosevelt as the woman who redefined the role of the First Lady in American history, becoming the model for later First Ladies. She turned her marital problems with her husband into an opportunity to shine and show that she was the better person. During and even after serving as our First Lady, she worked to uplift the social conditions of American women, African Americans, and the poor. She was appointed our representative to the United Nations from 1945-1963. President Harry S. Truman called her the â€Å"First Lady of the World.† Unlike previous First Ladies, she was active in public life as a writer, diplomat, and social activist. She wrote and published her autobiography (2000) before her death. Women’s suffrage is concerned with the right of women to vote in elections. This right was not enjoyed by women because US laws of at the time considered women incapable of exercising it. Such a simple assumption of the incapacity of half of the world to choose who should rule over them reflects the social attitude prevailing in America, where women were seen as weak and inferior to men (Stevens 107-108). Fortunately, a group

Brave new world Essay Example for Free

Brave new world Essay Lenina, Foster and the Director all have been pre-conditioned to think of themselves better and more intelligent than Betas, Delta, Gammas, and Epsilons, as do all Alphas. And with good reason as Alphas are pre-conditioned to be more intellectual and socially better. This portrays a capitalist society with the different classes. Huxley deriving from an upper-middle class family this is understandable. In contrast to 1984, everybody is relatively the same. Proles and Party members are all treated the same and are regulated with telescreens and thought police moving amongst them. The views of Orwell have been diffused into the subject matter of 1984 as well as Huxleys into BNW, the difference and contrast being their views. Huxleys views of a class system and Orwell views that a socialist Britain was going to develop in light of Soviet Russia. When further comparing the authors style and subject matter of thinking for their characters, it is clear that they share relatively the same principles. Orwells language and style shows that the Party members and proles are sub-consciously trained to believe the ideals of the Party by propaganda. Posters, the two-minute hate, books, songs and newspapers all enforce the Party ideals and the people believe them for they have no other principles or ideals with which to compare. They assume that the Party is right in what it says. This refers back to the proles not having an individual consciousness away from party principles, as stated by Winston in the extract. Their thinking is basic and un-intellectual. Similarly, the thinking process in BNW is a result from training and conditioning. This time people are taught in their sleep (again sub-consciously like in 1984) what to think and what ideals/principles to hold. Their thinking is mechanic and standardised which holds parallels with the mechanic factories they were produced in. Again it is the case of two different methods producing the same result. The subject matter of the BNW extract shows humour which 1984 does not. The fact and process that leads to the Rocket Engineers only ever being truly happy when standing on their heads and that Decanting trauma can occur in comparison with real life birth trauma. Both of these examples from the extract are illustrations of the humour that Huxley injects into the novel at several intervals. With 1984 there are no humorous comments at all and so the subject matter keeps, at all times, an air of seriousness, whereas with BNW this air of seriousness, as a revolutionary novel, is broken from time to time by the humour. A main contrast that the two extracts highlight is the ideal of what both worlds are striving towards and are. In 1984 Winston describes the Partys ultimate aim as; The ideal set up by the Party was something huge, terrible and glittering a world of steel and concrete, of monstrous machines a nation All thinking the same thoughts, shouting the same slogans, perpetually working, fighting, triumphing and persecuting three hundred million people all with the same face. This holds extreme parallels to the world that Huxley creates in Brave New World. A world where everyone has the same face paralleling with the mass producing of people that all look alike; shouting the same slogans, paralleling with the sleep taught sayings that everyone has a version of, whether youre an Alpha or Epsilon, a world of steel and concrete paralleling with the vast huge cities of BNW. It seems that 1984 is a world where a government is attempting to change the past and achieve a different world, whereas BNW is a world proud of its past and of sustaining its world. The two are exact opposites; BNW being what the Party is trying to create. The importance of the two extracts in the novels is high in that they are meant to shock the reader. Huxleys description of the manufacturing of people and Orwells description of a world that controls everything (even the past) and makes its people think whatever they like. Both extracts create a world in which the story is allowed to develop, they are the soil from which the seed is meant to grow. The 1984 extract has an added level to its importance as it shows that already Winston is part of the undead. It shows that Winston is doing exactly what hes not supposed to be and that if/when he is caught, the Party have got grounds on which to vaporise him. It shows the re-occurring principle in the novel that death is certain, and life is not. It shows that any chance of Orwells world changing, the Party being overthrown, is non-existent as any chance must lie in the proles but: Until they become conscious they will never rebel, and until after they have rebelled they cannot become conscious. This parallels with BNW as no-one there either wishes to change things, as they are content with their current life. Both extracts create these two worlds of unimaginable oppression whether its inhabitants realise it or not and the theme that runs throughout the comparison of the two novels and extracts is the same; that Orwell and Huxley both achieve relatively the same thing through different methods. They both achieve worlds of oppression and shock simply through different actual environments; as they did with making it that everyone thinks what the authorities wants them to think and that they have no interest in challenging this or any other aspect of their world. This being the case and both authors creating these future worlds of shock and astonishment are vital to the novels as this is what makes the novels so revolutionary for their time.

The complex issue of hypermasculinity

The complex issue of hypermasculinity Through past experience and research, hypermasculinity has led African American culture to be defined as a culture that strongly fights for their sign of status, and sexual aggressivity and dominance appear to be highly regarded. Research has concluded that media and false misinterpretations of hypermasculinity are the main causes, and the strong influences they have are causing these dominant, aggressive and demanding behaviours. Research has been done through personal interviews, field work and observation. Perhaps present and previous research is showing a better understanding for many cultures as to why African American men display certain characteristics, in which demonstrate power and control. Furthermore studies are creating awareness for society, although they are not justifying these behaviours as being acceptable. Introduction: Life threatening situations are brought upon us every day as we walk out the front door, into the bus or into the front doors of school. Growing up in todays society and conforming to various norms, values and behaviours in which one witnesses, is traumatic and time consuming amongst young men and women, especially young African American men. Gender roles and societies expectation are presented at such a young age, this leading to pressure and unjustified behaviours, such as drug trafficking, prostitution and pimping. Within African American society, gender roles are depicted precisely and followed. Various different ethnic groups live in different parts of the world, but the status of black males in American society has been in flux for the last several decades (Lips 2001, p.5). The reasons why all these groups must show status is to prove their images of what it means to be masculine. Sentimental, submissive and superstitious (Lips, 2001, p.5) are qualities associated with females in every country. On the other hand males are more likely to be connected to characteristics resembling dominance, forcefulness and strength (Lips, 2001, p.5). In a variety of Hip Hop, Rap music video clips, the images being portrayed of how young men must behave always consists of the same factors; dominance, power, aggressivity and the tough guy. The question of how hypermasculinity is defined in African American culture and why sexual aggressivity and dominance appear to be highly regarded within this culture, has been an ideology for many. Despite false interpretation that the media portrays, and the pressure of role models and real men, the following paper will examine the main points and answers to these questions. Furthermore it will observe the use of the term nigga and gansta from an open minded point of view. Hypermasculinity defined and expressed Hypermasculinity is an extremely important sign of status for black males. Hypermasculinity is defined in the (Oxford Dictionary) as an exaggerated masculine qualities, although this term can be negative, it is also personalized when examining these behaviours as adaptive or maladaptive impassively. The term gansta for example comes from the word gangster, which means a criminal who is a part of a gang; who would want to be viewed as a criminal. The other term often miss used, is the word pimp. A pimp, is an agent for prostitutes who lives off their earnings (Oxford Dictionary). Today pimp is being used to refer to guys who sleep with many girls, or the ones who can pick up any girl they want. Where will society draw the line, and who comes to decide whether one corresponds to the definition of a man an adult human male, sometimes also used to identify a male human regardless of age, as in phrases such as mens rights (Oxford Dictionary). DeReef examines African American behaviour and defines masculinity to the degree where a male is able to successfully manifest their attributes (DeReef, F. J. 2006, p.46). These behaviours are being shown in different ways where males are modifying or distorting their real behaviours in order to conform into society, as to what seems to be correctly acceptable. Over a long period of time until today black compulsive masculinity has been a dysfunctional response to solving racial domination and has been causing more problems within the environment. In other words black compulsive behaviours is an ideology composed of African consciousness, in which has created a reactionary masculinity in many African American males who seek to imitate their white male counterparts (DeReef, F.J. 2006, p. 47). According to Wolfe African American males strongly believe it is hard to achieve masculine identity through usual work or responsibilities. They are justifying their behaviours through assumption s in which they believe that they are the only ones who must work hard and have responsibilities in order to achieve masculine identity. Maladaptive hypermasculine behaviours such as drug trafficking, or being a pimp are the ones being justified because there is not enough employment opportunities given to black men. There has been a correlation between joblessness and higher incidence of various maladaptive behaviours. Hypersexuality and homophobia Black males, especially young men are so afraid to be referred to as wimps, or homos, that they have even created the term no homo (Masculinity, homophobia and Hip Hop, n.d ),. The term No homo must be said at the end of each sentence, in order for people not to think they sound gay, or they said something gay. During an interview regarding the term no homo, males claimed not to be reinforcing that their not gay because they know theyre not, but they are just making sure that when they speak others dont assume theyre gay. Homophobia is a big issue that has aroused and has become serious within the generation today. Elijah G.Ward, discusses how the black churches are also encouraging homophobia amongst black males and most of the time those who are against homosexuality are uncertain of their own sexuality and fear that they will be categorised as a community. This strongly emphasizes their powerful beliefs that heterosexuality is the right way. Many cultures do not support homosexual ity, a significant amount of black people according to Elijah G. Ward, see homosexual relationships as unacceptable and morality wrong p.494. In the black community a famous gansta-rapper Ice Cube has implanted in one of his famous songs true niggers aint gay (Ward, G.E .2005, p. 497). Homosexuality is seen to be a sign of weakness and is associated with feminine characteristics, these also encouraging labels towards men such as fags or queers. The black church strongly enforces that homosexuality is not what a man is and a man should be violent, demanding and have control. Their main priorities are their labels and they pay close attention, not to be called sissies which is the opposite of being cool. They want to portray that hard core gansta rapper role model who is an intensified, black male cultural reflection of patriarchy, sexism, hetorosexism and gansta-style (Ward, G. E. 2005, p. 497). Violent behaviours and gansta Throughout history, the black population have undergone several changes some harder to adapt to then others. The main issue with behaviours constantly changing and deviance sometimes being accepted, is when you adapt to an aggressive dominant behaviour you dont want to let go of that control you have obtained. A problem which has occurred and is important to understand is to know the difference between, understanding what you have been told and believing and making your own judgements accordingly; if it is right. For example in the black society it is a sign of status, to sleep with as many women as possible. William, A. Wolfe, summarize in their article that it is right to deceive a girl in order to have sex with her (Wiliam, A. Wolfe 2003, p 848) and that they dont believe in the use of the condom for a simple reason that they would be undermining their masculinity (Wiliam, A. Wolfe 2003, p. 848).Black males have been socialized into using their penis as a way to achieve manhood . Different expectations within a culture or society and how values have changed over time. This has also caused many African American women to fear their partners, and studies say that a woman has been in an abusive relationship is more likely not to speak up and fight her partner. In regards to sexuality and power the black African American society believes that when sexual aggression exists in a relationship (Wiliam, A. Wolfe 2003, p. 848 ), this shows violence is involved therefore he is a man; concluding violence is manly. Adolescent black males are also accounted for having a higher victimization rate than any other racial or age group (Gregory,S. 2007, p 371). African American women compare to their counter parts are the ones to usually get involved in abusive relationships and stay quiet due to their surroundings and or an abusive father. African American women are more vulnerable and listen to their partners when they use aggressive behaviours. This also brings out statist ics which show that over fifty percent of babies are born to minor females, fathered by African American men. They also show that the father is usually on average 26.1 years older (Wiliam, A. Wolfe 2003, p. 849.From this one can clearly conclude that a young African American female is no way has interpersonal skills and dominance over her partner to demand the use of a condom. Furthermore, black males are often taught or trained to control their emotions internally towards exercises that stimulate minor frustration, although this does not emphasise the power that long term maladaptive, self destructive and life threatening (Gregory, S. 2007,p.386) consequences have above it all. An infant who is brought up in a dangerous neighbourhood, attended an unsafe school and dealt with racism is more prone to recognize feelings towards aggression and violence. Black men who have experienced a tragic event of a life threatening situation will want to be prepared if it ever happens again, this is why Gregory, S. discusses the use of carrying of a weapon. In most neighbourhoods today and schools, young teens will not walk around with knifes and use it as an excuse of security purposes, although in neighbourhoods where there are at least three people getting stabbed every day, these young kids want to feel safe. The college of New Jersey evaluated that males are more l ikely to carry a weapon than females, and a survey in 2007 showed that 27% of boys did carry a weapon (Gregory, S. 2007, p.369). Carrying a knife or a gun is a sign of security, despite its encouragement towards violent behaviours. A weapon stimulates the fight or flight response which is a decision you make when experiencing a dangerous situation. Is the individual going to walk away, or will he make a decision and fight. In a situation where someone is carrying a weapon, almost one hundred percent of the time if they feel secure enough to fight and win, the weapon is their support and will cause them to partake in this dangerous behaviour. Statistics show that in 1994, gun control accounted for approximately 1,700 Black youths aged ten to nineteen (Gregory, S. 2007, p 368). The following statistics tell us that most of crime is being committed at a young age by youth. Young children are the ones who are victimised, especially in schools in poor neighbourhoods and the fear they exp erience is unpleasant and it creates an awareness of danger. Hip Hop; a justifiable reason leading to hypermasculinity The third point, if not one of the most influential one in society influencing power, dominance and control is Hip Hop. As a whole Hip Hop has become a culture for most black African American men and this has brought up a new image of acceptable behaviours and hypermasculinity. Many video clips you watch or lyrics you read are not only full of vulgar language, but its always a battle over a girl, power or insulting someones mother. Rap has created a new lifestyle for young men, and also many role models like Eminem, 50 cent and Tupac. Luxury has also become a big part of status. Many African American men today believe that rap is a way to express their true black life. There are different kinds of rap music, this having an influence on different kind of behaviours that are being acted out in society. Rap is categorised using five different forms. Teacher-rap, nation conscious rap, gansta rap, player/lover rap, porno rap and last religious rap (DeReef,F.J. 2006). These different kinds of rap all influence different ideas from social commitment to struggle, romance, sexual aggressive behaviours and spirituality of Christianity and Islam. It is amazing to listen to a rap song and interpret all these different ideas, and thinks to yourself, how can a young fifteen or sixteen year old kid understand this. What is being said is sometimes due to a personal experience or the rap artist is expressing his feelings and or emotions. Media has shown violence to be a part of masculinity, that it has become a norm and is no longer deviance within society. Statistics show that one in four men will use violence against their partner, and eighty-five percent of murders are being committed by men. As one can witness sexuality, criminality and violence play a strong role as being partners. Hip Hop role models like Lil Wayne display high rates of criminality for young African American men, and also use violence and strength towards sexuality. Young males are being brain washed and influenced in regards to these being the real characteristics of men and its a direct justification for hypermasculine behaviours. Roots of slavery The 17th century African American slavery was devastating and today has become a part of history. Slaves were not entitles any equal rights compare to what other had. They were demanded to do hard labour work and were treated with cruelty. Slaves were working ridiculous amount of hours a day and werent even treated as human beings.These slaves were being sold as if they were commodities from city to city. Slaves were seen by many as a different class of people in society. Many slaves tried to fights their master although there was not much success as they would be arrested or sent somewhere else. Slavery today plays a role on how society view black males and how they view themselves compare to society. The word nigga The word nigga is a good example or a word that has different meanings and that has been re-appropriated in society depending on who uses it. The word nigga comes from the word nigger which was originally used to refer to black people. The word was also used in the time of slavery for the black who were trying to escape. Today many African American men use the word amongst each other like white people would use the word brother. Although if a white person were to use the word nigger it is seen as insulting and some African American men take it to the extreme of being offended they might even beat someone up. Nigger for the African American culture is a sign of self identity amongst one another and pride. It is a moment in time of history and they want to hold onto this. In the 1970 the word nigger was seen as racists, offensive and as early as today it is a word that many will refrain from using. Slavery and hypermasculinity Men have enslaved other men to show their mastery over them, and think it is a weakness to show or express their feelings towards other human beings. Patriarchal masculinity has caused problems that are so complex. Long after legal racial segregation ended ( Lips, 2001, p.2 ), it is still clear how the white society treats Black men. Unless close attention is being payed to little factors which make a difference; often Black men are referred to not as men but as boys (Lips, 2001, p.20). Black men lived through times where they were never given the same privileges as white men, and they always had to earn their masculinity, most of the time not feeling good about being a man. Black males were always viewed as inferior to other cultures and always had to prove themselves one way or another. They were always stereotypically related to drugs, poverty and violence. Black American youth during the period of black power to Hip Hop, were denied opportunities to exercise their citizenship; th is having an effect today, they dont want to fall back down beneath everyone. Being denied opportunities, rights and not able to achieve personal goals has stuck with the black society until today. Not only is being labelled black a mental damage, but creates physical aggression as well. It seems that an individual who has been constantly emasculated over the years would at least try to conform to the dominant culture in hope of their being some acknowledgment of acceptance. It has been proven throughout society especially in the United States, that growing up as a black male has been a tough process. Being a black male is a burden at times because some people see and think of me, and men like me, as menaces to society. The masculinity that has been a part of my life has been one that has been used to oppress others and oppress me (Clifford, A. 2006, and p.4). The status of poverty for African American youth is the one that is the most revealing. In 2001 among all American children under the age of eighteen, the poverty rate was sixteen percent, but it was three times as high for black children; 30 percent (Collins, H, P. 2006, p.3). Black youth are the ones who are affected the most by social problems. Increasing employment opportunities for African American males would be ideal, this would give them a better environment, better surroundings and influence them that they are like the rest of the society. This is also why many black males rape, because that act of aggression towards a women is a form of status in which they would use in a workplace which is often not available for them. In other words, having the right to work and live a normal life style, will affect them positively. Several African American men have shaped their understandings and realities based on the past and keep exercising those actions. Having a normal life style r emains a dream for many black youths living under the age of eighteen. The main problem that touches upon poverty is the ineffectiveness of political strategies that strive to resist it (Collins, H, P. 2006, p.9). The civil rights movement was the primary strategy to solve racial integration, although African American politics are trying new social challenges to meet old responses. Despite some accomplishment, African Americans are frustrated because they dont see anything opening up ahead of them and they are still dealing with high unemployment rates. Beyond social problems resulting to poverty, unemployment and lack of civil rights, masculinity today is a big part relating to the past. African American societies have developed strong personalities to prove who they are and what they are capable of. For instance when you look around today, you will see more black males working, neighbourhoods are less poor and opportunities and chances have been and are being given to black commun ities. Considering that young African American males occupy such a visible position within society, they have demonstrated a zero tolerance for race, nation, gender, age and sexuality (Collins, H, P. 2006). All these different aspects that influenced black men have created the drives towards manhood today. When black men were in slavery they were being ordered around and always given commands; comparing that to this new generations they are the ones who are in control, and for the most are the ones giving commands. Conclusion: The issue of hypermasculinity is one that is quite complex and a total solution cannot be found. Research has shown that African American men believe in proving themselves as real men; this leading to behaviours in which can no longer be controlled. These actions are being tolerated by society today especially for young black males. Sexual aggressivity, dominance and hypermasculinity are highly responded within the culture for a countless amount of reasons. Media is portraying false misinterpretations as to what it means to be masculine, there is always a constant pressure being brought upon black males which enforces violent and controlling behaviours and they are being accepted as normal. Thirdly, African American culture has such a strong influential past of slavery that their culture is looking at society through a different lens. Black male needs to accomplish giving themselves an identity that will cause them to be comfortable with themselves. Ideally black males should critically assess the dominant cultures norm of masculinity instead of reworking the norms to satisfy their social situation. Many black males have failed to see the problem of the dominant cultures norms of masculinity in their lives. Society in general has labelled black men as being dangerous, and regardless if you know the person or not before even speaking to many black men they fall into that category that they are violent, dangerous or a sex maniac. Society has enforced black males to feel this way and cause them to do things in which they shouldnt do. It has caused a psychological problem which is hard to erase. In no way do African American men believe they can show weakness, this would mean they are not men. Violence in the media is glorified, and is exposed to children of all ages. Police will not hesitate to use violence against s uspects, and these young black males are often the targets of violent behaviours in their neighbourhoods; drugs, rape, gang related fights or domestic violence.